Ecological Succession: Definition, Types, Examples, Facts, Characteristics

Edited By Irshad Anwar | Updated on Jul 02, 2025 06:10 PM IST

Ecological succession is the natural process through which ecosystems change and develop over time, following a disturbance or the creation of a new habitat. It involves a series of gradual, predictable changes where different species of plants, animals, and microorganisms colonize an area, leading to the establishment of a stable community. In this article, the definition of ecological succession, types of ecological succession, examples of ecological succession, factors influencing ecological succession, and ecological succession and ecosystem services. Ecological Succession is a topic of Ecosystem in Biology.

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Definition of Ecological Succession in Ecosystem
Types of Ecological Succession
Examples of Ecological Succession in Ecosystem
Factors Influencing Ecological Succession
Ecological Succession and Ecosystem Services
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Ecological Succession

Definition of Ecological Succession in Ecosystem

Ecological succession refers to the amount of subsequent, orderly process whereby ecosystems make changes across time from bare or disturbed environments into stable, mature ecosystems. It involves the gradual colonisation of species, establishment of communities, and interaction of the organisms with the environment. There are two forms of this process: primary succession, which starts in an entirely new habitat lacking soil and vegetation, and secondary succession, which takes place in areas where an existing community has been disturbed or destroyed but the soil remains.

Ecological succession is important in appreciating very well the evolution of an ecosystem to changes in the environment. Succession plays a significant role in the dynamics of ecosystems as it helps give biodiversity, enhances resilience, and promotes nutrient turnover. Through succession, it is possible to make several inferences about the behaviour an ecosystem can face in the case of perturbation through events such as natural disasters or man-induced activities, hence conserving endeavours and management strategies of ecosystems aimed at conserving biodiversity and functions.

Types of Ecological Succession

The ecological succession and its types are listed below-

Primary Succession

Primary succession takes place in areas where the soil is completely absent at the beginning, for instance, on bare rock or land exposed by retreating glaciers or volcanic eruptions. Primary succession is initiated by pioneer species, which constitute the first category of living things that colonise these areas, which tend to be inhospitable.

These types of species, mainly comprising lichens and mosses, are tolerant of harsh conditions and, via physical and chemical means, start the rock breakdown into the soil. These pilot species eventually die and decompose, adding organic matter to the developing soil, thus allowing more diverse plant communities to become established. For example, lava flows following a volcanic eruption or after the retreat of glaciers when bare rock is exposed.

Secondary Succession

Secondary succession is the type of succession that occurs in an already existing but disturbed or disrupted ecosystem where the soil and seeds for plants are intact. It happens more rapidly than primary succession as, here, the soil itself contains many nutrients and seed sources.

This kind of transition may happen after forest fires, abandoned agricultural land, or areas that have been swept away by hurricane-force winds. Compared with primary succession, starting with bare surroundings can result in the fairly swift re-establishment of plant and animal communities. Indeed, the series of species that constitutes secondary succession is generally quite predictable and usually comprises a series of stages from fast-growing species to the final stages, which lead to more stable diverse communities.

Cyclic Succession

Cyclic succession, also known as seasonal succession, is a repeated, predictable pattern of succession taking place over shorter timescales within specific ecosystems. This is driven by seasonal changes in abiotic environmental conditions, such as temperature, precipitation, and sunlight. Thus, the plant communities in temperate regions may undergo cyclic succession, where different species dominate throughout spring, summer, autumn, and winter. This type of succession does not involve drastic changes in the structure of the ecosystem but rather involves changes in dominant species under seasonal variation.

Seral Community

Seral community succession, also known as linear succession, is a progression of communities where one stage makes the environment suitable for the next in a development leading to a climax. It is relatively common, especially in an aquatic environment, such as fish ponds or in any lake during eutrophication.

First, it is dominated by pioneer species like algae and floating plants, succeeded by submerged aquatic vegetation, and finally by terrestrial plants and shrubs. With every stage that the process goes through, the habitat is modified in such a way that it becomes more favourable for the establishment of the succeeding community. In other words, there is a net progression towards a more stable ecosystem state.

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Examples of Ecological Succession in Ecosystem

Examples of ecological succession are:

Volcanic Eruption

Following the catastrophic eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980, primary succession began immediately in the denuded landscape. The first to take over volcanic rock and ash were pioneer species such as lichens and mosses. After a couple of decades, the early colonizers died off and started building up some soil, which supported more complex plants like grasses and herbaceous species.

By the 2000s, young coniferous trees like lodgepole pine and western hemlock began to dominate, gradually building a forested ecosystem out of the landscape. This succession timeline exemplifies nature's incredible ability to regenerate and rebuild after catastrophes.

Pond Ecosystem

One of the very impressive examples of ecological succession is the succession of a pond or lake ecosystem. Initially, almost every newly formed pond is colonized by algae and floating plants like duckweed. Sometime after this accumulation of organic matter and some sedimentation, emergent plants such as reeds and cattails may take hold along the edges. This makes the pond a marsh or wetland habitat.

Over time, once more filled in with organic material and sediment, shrubs and small trees may establish themselves, which can then more fully transition the ecosystem into a wooded wetland or swamp. This, therefore, shows the progress of succession from open water to a diverse mature wetland ecosystem.

Factors Influencing Ecological Succession

Succession is determined by a mixture of biological and physical properties.

Biological Factors: Competitive reasons related to species, which include competing for the same resources, like light and nutrients, are some of the reasons for community composition. Predation and symbiotic relationships, as in mycorrhizal association, affect population dynamics and nutrient cycling. If species diversity increases over time, it guarantees an increase in ecosystem complexity and resilience.

Physical Factors: The physical factors, such as climate, determine the species that may be favoured to occupy a particular area at any given time of the different succession stages. Soil characteristics, like pH and texture, ensure the availability of nutrients and water to plants for growth and establishment of plant communities. Other perturbations, such as fires or human activities added to these, may reset succession and thus alter community trajectories and diversity over time.

Ecological Succession and Ecosystem Services

Ecological succession is important for the maintenance of biodiversity in that it allows for an increase in habitat diversity and the varied existence of species. Succession thus confers resiliency against disturbance, increases productivity, and creates complex pathways of interactions and nutrient cycling. It is essential in sustaining healthy ecosystems that have inherent benefits such as habitat provision, water purification, and climate control.

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Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. What is ecological succession?

Ecological succession is the process through which an ecological community changes and develops over time, beginning with disturbance and the initial colonisation of a barren habitat and culminating in a climax community.

2. What is ecological succession?

Ecological succession is the gradual process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time. It involves the progressive replacement of earlier colonizing species by other species, leading to a more stable ecosystem. This process can take years, decades, or even centuries, depending on the environment and the organisms involved.

3. What are the steps in primary succession?

Primary succession occurs in completely bare landscapes, with colonization by pioneer species such as lichens and mosses. These species ultimately lead to the formation of soil from bare rock, providing an environment within which grasses, shrubs, and eventually trees can get a foothold.

4. What is the difference between secondary and primary succession?

Secondary succession occurs on previously inhabited or disturbed sites where soil remains intact. It starts with the growth of annual plants then the perennial species progress to a stable climax community.

5. How do pioneer species contribute to succession?

Pioneer species are the first species to colonise areas devoid of life. They break down rock and organic materials to create soil, and they change the landscape to allow more advanced species to gain a foothold.

6. What is the role of human activities in ecological succession?

Human activities, such as cultivation, urbanisation, and in general destruction of vegetation and soil, may change or halt the process of natural succession. They could be using invasive alien species and also altering soil characteristics and/or suppressing natural disturbances, which influence ecological development and diversity.

7. How does ecological succession relate to the concept of ecosystem assembly?

Ecological succession is closely related to ecosystem assembly, which describes how ecosystems are built up over time. Succession can be viewed as a specific case of ecosystem assembly, where communities change in a somewhat predictable sequence. Understanding the rules of ecosystem assembly, including dispersal limitations, environmental filtering, and species interactions, can help explain successional patterns and predict how ecosystems might respond to disturbances or environmental changes.

8. What is the concept of succession vectors in ecology?

Succession vectors represent the direction and rate of change in community composition over time. They can be visualized as arrows in multivariate space, where each axis represents different community attributes. Analyzing succession vectors can reveal patterns in how communities change, including the speed of succession, convergence or divergence of communities, and the influence of different environmental factors on successional trajectories.

9. What is the concept of succession-mediated coexistence?

Succession-mediated coexistence refers to the idea that successional processes can promote the coexistence of species that might otherwise exclude each other. Temporal changes in environmental conditions and resource availability during succession create opportunities for different species to thrive at different times. This temporal partitioning of resources can allow a greater number of species to persist in the community over time, contributing to overall biodiversity.

10. How does ecological succession relate to the concept of ecosystem complexity?

Ecological succession typically leads to increased ecosystem complexity over time. This includes more complex food webs, more diverse species interactions, and more intricate nutrient cycling processes. As succession progresses, the number of trophic levels often increases, and species develop more specialized niches. This increased complexity can contribute to greater ecosystem stability and resilience, but it also makes the system more challenging to study and predict.

11. What role do nitrogen-fixing bacteria play in ecological succession?

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are crucial in ecological succession, especially in nutrient-poor environments. They can convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use, enriching the soil. This process is particularly important in primary succession, where soil nutrients are initially very low, allowing plants to establish and grow more easily.

12. What is an ecological climax community?

An ecological climax community is the final stage of succession, resulting in a stable, self-perpetuating community in balance with the environmental conditions. It's characterized by a diverse range of species, complex food webs, and efficient nutrient cycling. However, it's important to note that climax communities are not static and can still undergo changes due to environmental fluctuations or disturbances.

13. How does ecological succession relate to biodiversity?

Ecological succession often leads to increased biodiversity over time. As succession progresses, more niches become available, allowing a greater variety of species to coexist. However, the relationship is complex. Early stages of succession may have high biodiversity of pioneer species, while later stages might have fewer but more specialized species. The highest biodiversity often occurs in intermediate stages of succession.

14. How do keystone species influence the trajectory of succession?

Keystone species have a disproportionate impact on their ecosystem relative to their abundance. In succession, they can significantly influence the community's trajectory by altering resource availability, modifying habitats, or controlling populations of other species. For example, beavers can create wetlands, dramatically changing the course of succession in an area.

15. How does soil development progress during ecological succession?

Soil development is a crucial aspect of ecological succession. In primary succession, soil formation begins with the weathering of rock and the accumulation of organic matter from pioneer species. As succession progresses, the soil becomes deeper and richer in nutrients due to the continuous addition of organic matter from plants and animals. This improved soil quality, in turn, supports more diverse and complex plant communities.

16. How do lichens contribute to primary succession?

Lichens are often among the first organisms to colonize bare rock in primary succession. They secrete acids that slowly break down the rock surface, creating small pockets where soil can accumulate. As lichens die and decompose, they add organic matter to this developing soil, paving the way for mosses and other small plants to grow.

17. How do animal communities change during ecological succession?

Animal communities change in parallel with plant communities during succession. Early successional stages often support animals adapted to open habitats and those that can quickly colonize new areas. As vegetation becomes more complex, it provides more niches for a diverse array of animal species. The animal community typically becomes more stable and diverse as succession progresses, with more complex food webs and specialized species.

18. What is the concept of arrested succession?

Arrested succession occurs when the normal progression of ecological succession is halted or significantly slowed by some limiting factor. This can be due to extreme environmental conditions (e.g., frequent fires, severe drought), continuous disturbance, or the presence of a particularly competitive species. In these cases, the ecosystem may remain in a particular successional stage for an extended period, unable to progress to the expected climax community.

19. How does ecological succession relate to energy flow in ecosystems?

As ecological succession progresses, the efficiency of energy capture and transfer within the ecosystem generally increases. Early successional stages often have simple food chains with rapid energy turnover. Later stages develop more complex food webs with more efficient energy use and storage. The biomass and total energy stored in the ecosystem typically increase throughout succession, leading to more stable and self-sustaining systems.

20. How does ecological succession influence carbon storage in ecosystems?

Carbon storage generally increases as ecological succession progresses. Early successional stages often have rapid carbon turnover but low total storage. As communities develop, more carbon is sequestered in long-lived plants, soil organic matter, and stable soil aggregates. Mature forests and other late-successional ecosystems are typically significant carbon sinks, playing a crucial role in global carbon cycling and climate regulation.

21. How does facilitation contribute to the process of succession?

Facilitation in succession refers to the positive interactions between species that promote the establishment and growth of other species. For example, early colonizing plants may provide shade or wind protection for seedlings of later-successional species. This process helps drive the progression of succession by creating more favorable conditions for a wider variety of species.

22. How does disturbance affect the process of ecological succession?

Disturbances, such as fires, storms, or human activities, can interrupt or reset the process of ecological succession. They can create opportunities for early successional species to recolonize an area, potentially leading to increased biodiversity. The frequency and intensity of disturbances play a crucial role in shaping ecosystem dynamics and determining the stage of succession in a given area.

23. What is the role of competition in ecological succession?

Competition plays a significant role in shaping ecological succession. As resources become limited, species compete for light, water, nutrients, and space. This competition can lead to the exclusion of some species and the dominance of others better adapted to the changing conditions. Over time, this process contributes to the changes in community composition characteristic of succession.

24. Why is pioneer species important in ecological succession?

Pioneer species are crucial in ecological succession because they are the first organisms to colonize a barren area. They help create conditions that allow other species to establish themselves by breaking down rocks, forming soil, and providing organic matter. Without pioneer species, the process of succession would be much slower or might not occur at all.

25. What is the intermediate disturbance hypothesis in relation to succession?

The intermediate disturbance hypothesis suggests that biodiversity is highest when disturbances are neither too rare nor too frequent. Moderate levels of disturbance can create a mosaic of habitats at different successional stages, supporting a wider variety of species. This concept highlights the importance of disturbance regimes in maintaining biodiversity and influencing succession patterns.

26. How does primary succession differ from secondary succession?

Primary succession occurs in areas where there was no previous ecosystem, such as newly formed volcanic islands or areas exposed by retreating glaciers. It starts with bare rock or soil. Secondary succession occurs in areas where an ecosystem previously existed but was disrupted, such as after a forest fire or abandoned farmland. It starts with some soil and possibly remnants of the previous ecosystem.

27. What is the difference between autogenic and allogenic succession?

Autogenic succession is driven by the organisms themselves through their interactions with each other and their environment. For example, plants may change soil conditions, affecting which species can grow there next. Allogenic succession is driven by external environmental changes, such as climate change or geological processes, which alter the conditions for plant and animal communities.

28. What is the difference between seral stages and climax communities?

Seral stages are the transitional communities that occur during the process of succession, while a climax community is the final, stable stage of succession. Seral stages are characterized by rapid changes in species composition and are often dominated by fast-growing, short-lived species. In contrast, climax communities are more stable, with slower turnover of species and dominated by longer-lived, more competitive species adapted to the local environmental conditions.

29. What is the concept of relay floristics in succession?

Relay floristics is a model of succession where different groups of plant species replace each other in a predictable sequence. Each group modifies the environment, making it more suitable for the next group but less suitable for itself. This concept emphasizes the idea of species replacement rather than simple addition during the successional process.

30. What is the role of seed banks in ecological succession?

Seed banks, which are dormant seeds in the soil, play a crucial role in ecological succession, especially in secondary succession. They allow rapid recolonization after disturbances by providing a ready source of plant species adapted to early successional conditions. The composition of the seed bank can significantly influence the initial stages of succession and the subsequent trajectory of community development.

31. What is the role of mycorrhizal fungi in ecological succession?

Mycorrhizal fungi play a crucial role in ecological succession by forming symbiotic relationships with plants. They help plants absorb nutrients and water more efficiently, which is particularly important in nutrient-poor early successional environments. As succession progresses, the diversity and complexity of mycorrhizal associations often increase, contributing to the establishment of more diverse plant communities.

32. How does ecological succession contribute to ecosystem resilience?

Ecological succession contributes to ecosystem resilience by increasing the complexity and diversity of the ecosystem over time. More diverse ecosystems are generally more resilient to disturbances because they have a greater variety of species that can respond differently to environmental changes. The process of succession also builds up soil organic matter and nutrient reserves, which can help the ecosystem recover more quickly after disturbances.

33. How does ecological succession affect nutrient cycling?

Nutrient cycling becomes more efficient and closed as ecological succession progresses. In early stages, nutrient cycles are often more open, with significant losses from the system. As succession advances, more nutrients are retained within the system through increased biomass, litter accumulation, and the development of more complex soil food webs. This leads to more efficient recycling of nutrients and greater ecosystem stability.

34. What is the concept of succession-climate climax?

The succession-climate climax concept suggests that the final stage of succession (climax community) is primarily determined by the regional climate. According to this idea, similar climatic conditions will lead to similar climax communities, regardless of the starting point of succession. However, this concept has been challenged by the recognition that other factors, such as soil type and disturbance regimes, also play significant roles in determining the endpoint of succession.

35. How do invasive species affect the process of ecological succession?

Invasive species can significantly alter the course of ecological succession. They may outcompete native species, changing the composition and structure of communities at various successional stages. In some cases, invasive species can create novel ecosystems that differ substantially from the historical successional pathways. This can lead to alternative stable states that may be resistant to returning to the original successional trajectory.

36. What is the relationship between ecological succession and ecosystem services?

Ecological succession often enhances ecosystem services over time. As ecosystems develop, they typically provide more diverse and robust services such as carbon sequestration, water purification, and soil stabilization. However, the relationship is complex, as some ecosystem services may be more pronounced in early successional stages (e.g., certain types of food production), while others increase with ecosystem maturity (e.g., climate regulation).

37. How does ecological succession relate to the concept of ecosystem engineering?

Ecosystem engineering, where organisms modify their environment, is closely linked to ecological succession. Many successional changes are driven by ecosystem engineers that alter habitat conditions. For example, trees in a developing forest change light levels, soil moisture, and nutrient availability, influencing which species can thrive. This process of environmental modification by organisms is a key mechanism driving the progression of succession.

38. What is the role of facilitative interactions in ecological succession?

Facilitative interactions, where one species benefits another without being harmed itself, play a crucial role in ecological succession. Early colonizers often create conditions that allow other species to establish. For example, nitrogen-fixing plants can enrich soil, benefiting later colonizers. These positive interactions can accelerate succession and increase community diversity, challenging the historical view of succession as primarily driven by competition.

39. How does the concept of alternative stable states relate to ecological succession?

Alternative stable states suggest that ecosystems can exist in multiple stable configurations under the same environmental conditions. This concept challenges the traditional view of succession leading to a single climax community. Disturbances or gradual changes can shift an ecosystem from one stable state to another, potentially altering the successional trajectory. Understanding alternative stable states is crucial for predicting ecosystem responses to environmental changes and for ecosystem management.

40. What is the significance of functional traits in understanding ecological succession?

Functional traits, which are characteristics of organisms that influence their interactions with the environment and other species, are increasingly recognized as important in understanding succession. Rather than focusing solely on species identities, examining how functional traits change during succession can provide insights into ecosystem processes and community assembly. This approach can help predict successional trajectories and ecosystem functions across different environments.

41. What is the role of positive feedbacks in driving ecological succession?

Positive feedbacks play a significant role in driving ecological succession. These occur when the effects of a change amplify that change. For example, as trees grow in a developing forest, they create more shade, which favors shade-tolerant species, further changing the forest composition. Positive feedbacks can accelerate successional changes and can sometimes lead to rapid shifts between alternative stable states in ecosystems.

42. How does ecological succession influence landscape heterogeneity?

Ecological succession contributes significantly to landscape heterogeneity. Different areas within a landscape may be at various stages of succession due to differences in disturbance history, environmental conditions, or management practices. This creates a mosaic of habitats at different successional stages, increasing overall landscape diversity. Understanding these patterns is crucial for landscape-level conservation and management strategies.

43. How does ecological succession relate to the concept of ecosystem multifunctionality?

Ecosystem multifunctionality, which refers to the ability of an ecosystem to maintain multiple functions simultaneously, often increases with ecological succession. As ecosystems develop, they typically become more complex and can support a wider range of ecological functions. However, the relationship is not always linear, and some functions may peak at different stages of succession. Understanding this relationship is crucial for ecosystem management aimed at maintaining multiple ecosystem services.

44. What is the role of priority effects in shaping successional trajectories?

Priority effects occur when the order and timing of species arrivals influence the subsequent development of a community. In succession, early colonizers can significantly affect the establishment and success of later arrivals through various mechanisms such as resource pre-emption or habitat modification. These effects can lead to different successional outcomes even under similar environmental conditions, highlighting the importance of historical contingencies in community assembly.

45. How does ecological succession influence ecosystem stability and resistance?

As ecological succession progresses, ecosystems generally become more stable and resistant to disturbances. This is due to increased species diversity, more complex food webs, and the development of organisms with traits adapted to the local environment. However, the relationship is not always straightforward. Some early successional stages may be highly resilient to certain types of disturbances, while late-successional ecosystems might be more vulnerable to novel perturbations.

46. What is the role of dispersal in ecological succession?

Dispersal plays a crucial role in ecological succession by determining which species can reach a site and in what order. The ability of organisms to disperse to new areas affects the rate and trajectory of succession. Species with effective dispersal mechanisms often dominate early successional stages. As succession progresses, the importance of local interactions and environmental filtering may increase relative to dispersal effects.

47. How does ecological succession influence ecosystem resistance to invasive species?

The relationship between succession and ecosystem resistance to invasive species is complex. Early successional communities are often more susceptible to invasion due to available resources and less intense competition. As succession progresses, ecosystems generally become more resistant to invasion due to increased biodiversity, more complete resource use, and stronger competitive interactions. However, some mature ecosystems can be vulnerable to specific invaders that exploit untapped niches.

48. What is the concept of successional niche in ecology?

The successional niche concept suggests that species are adapted to particular stages of succession rather than to stable environmental conditions. It proposes that trade-offs in species traits (e.g., between colonization ability and competitive