Mycoplasma: Causes, Symptoms, and Diagnosis, examples, Topics

Edited By Irshad Anwar | Updated on Jul 02, 2025 06:02 PM IST

Mycoplasma are the smallest living organisms known. They are unique, extremely small single-celled organisms. They do not have a cell wall, which makes them flexible in shape and naturally resistant to antibiotics that target the cell wall, like penicillin. Mycoplasmas can survive even without oxygen, and many of them live as parasites or harmless guests in animals, plants, and humans.

This Story also Contains

What Is Mycoplasma?
Structure And Characteristics Of Mycoplasma
Mycoplasma Types And Classification
Mycoplasma Diseases
Mycoplasma Infection Prevention
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Mycoplasma: Causes, Symptoms, and Diagnosis, examples, Topics

Mycobacteria are important study in the topic Bacteria. They show how bacteria can change and survive in tough conditions. This article includes structure, Characteristics of Mycoplasma, its types and classification. This topic is linked to how cells are built, how living things are grouped, and how some bacteria cause diseases.

What Is Mycoplasma?

Mycoplasma is an unconventional member of the bacterial world belonging to the class called Mollicutes which lacks a cell wall. Originally identified in the last decade of the 19th century while investigating pleuropneumonia in cattle, Mycoplasma has been explored subsequently largely because of its pathogenic involvement with humans and animals.

These bacteria are interesting as they are considered to be post-modern as they had gone through reductive evolution meaning they lack so many essential genes. Hence, these minimalistic cellular machinery offer the necessary vantage to study what is essentially needed for life and throw light on bacterial evolution and adaptation processes.

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Structure And Characteristics Of Mycoplasma

Mycoplasma is a very small type of bacteria. Mycoplasma is essential due to some features like the absence of strong cell walls and, relatively small genome size. The structure and characteristics of Mycoplasma are listed below-

Cellular Structure

Mycoplasma bacteria do not possess a cell wall; thus they cannot be killed by antibiotics that target the synthesis of cell walls, for example, penicillin.

Membrane composition

Their cell membrane has sterols that bring stability and rigidity to the cell; this is not characteristic of other prokaryotes.

Shape and Size

Mycoplasmas are usually short rods or cocci, but they can also be spherical to filamentous in shape, as they are among the smallest bacteria.

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Genomic Features

Mycoplasma is one of the smallest genomes of any self-replicating organism, which ranges from approximately 600-1,350 kilobase pairs. They have again least junk DNA and regulatory sequences in their links, and their genes are compacted with maximum efficiency and fold with minimum non-coding sequence, which contain mainly the survival genes. They have their particular genes and petite metabolic profiles because they have evolved from parasites that conduct many of their functions inside specific host cells.

Mycoplasma Types And Classification

Mycoplasma is a type of bacteria without a cell wall. Scientists divide it into different types based on its structure and diseases it causes.

Classification:

Domain	Bacteria
Phylum	Tenericutes
Class	Mollicutes
Order	Mycoplasmatales
Family	Mycoplasmataceae

Common Species

Mycoplasma pneumoniae: It is a cause of atypical pneumonia as well as respiratory infections in humans.
Mycoplasma genitalium: Jointly linked to urogenital infections and sexually transmitted diseases.
Mycoplasma hominis: Associated with PID and other urogenital infections.
Ureaplasma species: Comprises Ureaplasma urealyticum and Ureaplasma parvum organisms that are normally found in the genital area and may lead to infections.

Mycoplasma Diseases

Some types of Mycoplasma cause diseases in humans, especially when the immune system is weak.These bacteria are known to cause respiratory problems, urinary infections, and may also be linked to long-term health issues.

Respiratory Infections

Annual pneumonia is one of the backpackers’ arch-enemies, responsible for atypical pneumonia, bronchitis, and other respiratory tract infections, most especially in children and young adults.

Urogenital Infections

M. genitalium and M. hominis are the pathogens responsible for urogenital infection, acute and chronic non-gonococcal urethritis, pelvic inflammatory diseases, and bacterial vaginosis.

Joint And Bone Infections

Mycoplasma species also contribute to septic arthritis and osteomyelitis in certain immunodeficient clients or where the client is suffering from other diseases or ailments.

Links To Chronic Diseases

Some Mycoplasma pathogens are known to be associated with rheumatoid arthritis and chronic fatigue syndrome, which indicates that they may also aid the chronicity and/or worsening of the aforementioned diseases.

Mycoplasma Infection Prevention

Mycoplasma infections can be prevented by keeping clean and avoiding close contact with infected people. Although there is no vaccine yet, scientists are working to make one, especially for Mycoplasma pneumoniae, which affects many people.

Hygiene And Sanitation

Adherence to measures such as hand washing and other cleanliness activities and measures.
Some measures that need to be taken to help decrease Mycoplasma infections are the cleanliness of the common areas.
Measures such as wearing a mask and staying away from close contact with infected people can help halt the respiratory spread.

Vaccine Development

As of now, there are no specific anti-Mycoplasma vaccines that are administered in the market.
There is an attempt to continue with effective vaccination, especially for Mycoplasma pneumonia since the pathogen affects the society’s health.

Also Read:

Cell Envelope	Five Kingdom Classification
Composition of Bacterial Cell Wall	Kingdom Monera, Protista And Fungi
Gram Staining	Salient features of the Kingdom Monera

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Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. What is Mycoplasma and why is it unique?

Mycoplasma are bacteria which belong to one genus of bacteria, these little guys have no cell walls which makes them different from all other prokaryotes that exist. This characteristic impacts their shape, and behaviour when exposed to antibiotics and how they avoid immune responses.

2. How does Mycoplasma cause disease in humans?

Mycoplasma is pathogenic to host tissues as shownthe properties like adhesion, immune avoidance mechanisms, and toxins production. They are known to be related to respiratory infections, urogenital infections and other ailments.

3. What are the common methods for diagnosing Mycoplasma infections?

Culture, PCR, serology, and microscopy are some of the regularly used techniques for diagnosis. Hospitals are also benefiting from faster diagnostic tests, as well as from genomic sequencing.

4. Which antibiotics are effective against Mycoplasma infections?

The commonly used antibiotics for treatment include macrolides, such as doxycycline and fluoroquinolones. However, there emerging difficulties thus presenting a challenge especially unsatisfactory reactions to these antibiotics.

5. What are the challenges in treating Mycoplasma infections?

These include:

First, they do not have a cell wall which makes them defy most antibiotics.

Second, they are intracellular organisms.

Last, they have a high possibility of genetic mutations which makes them develop resistance to antibiotics.

6. What are some common symptoms of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection?

Common symptoms of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection include persistent dry cough, fever, fatigue, sore throat, and in some cases, difficulty breathing. However, symptoms can vary widely, from mild to severe, and may mimic other respiratory infections.

7. Why is Mycoplasma pneumoniae often called "walking pneumonia"?

Mycoplasma pneumoniae is often called "walking pneumonia" because many infected individuals have mild symptoms that don't require hospitalization. They can often continue their daily activities while infected, potentially spreading the bacteria to others.

8. Why is Mycoplasma often referred to as a "stealth pathogen"?

Mycoplasma is called a "stealth pathogen" because it can evade the immune system and standard microbiological detection methods. Its small size and lack of a cell wall allow it to hide within host cells and cause persistent infections that are difficult to diagnose and treat.

9. What makes diagnosing Mycoplasma infections challenging?

Diagnosing Mycoplasma infections is challenging because symptoms often resemble other respiratory infections, the bacteria are difficult to culture in laboratories due to their fastidious nature, and they may not be detected by standard microbiological tests that rely on cell wall staining.

10. How does Mycoplasma evade the human immune system?

Mycoplasma evades the immune system through several mechanisms: its small size allows it to hide within host cells, its lack of a cell wall helps it avoid detection by certain immune cells, and some species can alter their surface proteins to avoid antibody recognition.

11. What are the main ways Mycoplasma can be transmitted?

Mycoplasma can be transmitted through respiratory droplets, close physical contact, contaminated objects, and in some cases, from mother to child during pregnancy or childbirth. Different species of Mycoplasma may have different transmission routes.

12. What role does Mycoplasma play in laboratory cell culture contamination?

Mycoplasma is a common contaminant in laboratory cell cultures due to its small size, which allows it to pass through filters, and its ability to grow without causing visible changes to the culture medium. This contamination can significantly affect research results and cell line integrity.

13. How do antibiotics typically used for bacterial infections affect Mycoplasma?

Many common antibiotics, such as penicillins and cephalosporins, are ineffective against Mycoplasma because they target cell wall synthesis, which Mycoplasma lacks. Instead, antibiotics that interfere with protein synthesis or DNA replication, like macrolides or fluoroquinolones, are typically used.

14. What are the implications of Mycoplasma's ability to alter host cell gene expression?

Some Mycoplasma species can alter the gene expression of their host cells, potentially affecting cellular processes and immune responses. This ability contributes to their pathogenicity and can lead to long-term changes in host cell behavior, even after the infection is cleared.

15. What is the relationship between Mycoplasma and autoimmune diseases?

Some research suggests that Mycoplasma infections may trigger or exacerbate certain autoimmune diseases. The mechanism is not fully understood, but it may involve molecular mimicry, where Mycoplasma antigens resemble host tissues, leading to an autoimmune response.

16. What is Mycoplasma and why is it unique among bacteria?

Mycoplasma is a genus of bacteria that lacks a cell wall, making it one of the smallest known free-living organisms. This unique characteristic allows Mycoplasma to be flexible in shape and resistant to many common antibiotics that target cell wall synthesis.

17. How does Mycoplasma's small genome size affect its survival strategies?

Mycoplasma has one of the smallest genomes among free-living organisms. This limited genetic material means it lacks genes for many biosynthetic pathways, forcing it to be highly dependent on its host for nutrients and survival. This parasitic lifestyle has shaped its evolution and pathogenicity.

18. How does Mycoplasma's parasitic lifestyle influence its genome evolution?

Mycoplasma's parasitic lifestyle has led to genome reduction over time. As it became more dependent on its host for nutrients and cellular processes, it lost genes for many biosynthetic pathways. This streamlined genome reflects its highly adapted and host-dependent nature.

19. What are some unique adaptations of Mycoplasma that allow it to survive without a cell wall?

To survive without a cell wall, Mycoplasma has evolved several adaptations: a reinforced cell membrane with sterols for stability, the ability to change shape to adapt to different environments, and mechanisms to adhere tightly to host cells for protection and nutrient acquisition.

20. How does the small size of Mycoplasma affect its interactions with host cells?

The small size of Mycoplasma allows it to closely associate with host cell membranes and even enter host cells in some cases. This intimate contact enables efficient nutrient acquisition and can disrupt host cell functions, contributing to pathogenicity.

21. How does the absence of a cell wall affect Mycoplasma's classification?

The absence of a cell wall in Mycoplasma led to its classification in a separate class called Mollicutes, which means "soft skin." This distinguishes it from other bacteria and affects its behavior, making it more resistant to certain antibiotics and allowing it to adopt various shapes.

22. What is the significance of Mycoplasma genitalium in genetics research?

Mycoplasma genitalium is significant in genetics research because it has one of the smallest known genomes of any free-living organism. It has been used as a model to study the concept of a "minimal genome" and to understand the basic requirements for cellular life.

23. What role does horizontal gene transfer play in Mycoplasma evolution?

Despite their small genomes, Mycoplasma species can engage in horizontal gene transfer, acquiring genetic material from other microorganisms. This process has played a crucial role in their evolution, allowing them to gain new traits and adapt to different host environments.

24. How do Mycoplasma species differ in their host specificity?

Different Mycoplasma species show varying degrees of host specificity. Some, like M. pneumoniae, primarily infect humans, while others have a broader host range. This specificity is often related to the unique surface proteins that allow them to adhere to and interact with specific host cells.

25. How does Mycoplasma affect different organ systems in the human body?

While Mycoplasma is often associated with respiratory infections, different species can affect various organ systems. For example, M. pneumoniae primarily affects the respiratory system, M. genitalium can cause urogenital tract infections, and some species have been linked to arthritis and other systemic conditions.

26. What is the significance of Mycoplasma in the context of the human microbiome?

While often considered pathogens, some Mycoplasma species may be part of the normal human microbiome. Understanding their role in the microbiome is crucial for distinguishing between commensal and pathogenic strains and for understanding their overall impact on human health.

27. How does Mycoplasma's metabolism differ from that of other bacteria?

Mycoplasma's metabolism is highly streamlined due to its small genome. It lacks many biosynthetic pathways and relies heavily on its host for nutrients. For example, most Mycoplasma species cannot synthesize their own fatty acids or cholesterol, which they must obtain from their environment.

28. How does Mycoplasma's small genome size influence its mutation rate and evolution?

Mycoplasma's small genome size can lead to a higher mutation rate per genome replication, as there are fewer DNA repair genes. This can accelerate evolution and adaptation to new environments or host defenses, but also makes Mycoplasma more vulnerable to deleterious mutations.

29. How does Mycoplasma's metabolic dependence on the host affect its tissue tropism?

Mycoplasma's metabolic dependence on its host influences its tissue tropism, or preference for certain tissues. Different Mycoplasma species have evolved to exploit specific nutrient environments in different host tissues, leading to species-specific patterns of infection and disease.

30. How do Mycoplasma infections impact the respiratory epithelium?

Mycoplasma infections can damage the respiratory epithelium by adhering to and destroying ciliated cells. This disrupts the mucociliary clearance system, leading to persistent cough and increased susceptibility to other respiratory pathogens.

31. What is the significance of Mycoplasma's ability to form biofilms?

Some Mycoplasma species can form biofilms, which are communities of microorganisms adhering to surfaces. Biofilm formation enhances antibiotic resistance, promotes persistence in the host, and complicates treatment of Mycoplasma infections.

32. How does Mycoplasma's lack of a cell wall affect its susceptibility to osmotic stress?

Without a rigid cell wall, Mycoplasma is more susceptible to osmotic stress. To counteract this, they have evolved mechanisms to regulate their intracellular osmolarity and can change shape to adapt to different osmotic environments.

33. What role do surface proteins play in Mycoplasma pathogenicity?

Surface proteins are crucial for Mycoplasma pathogenicity. They mediate adhesion to host cells, help evade the immune system through antigenic variation, and can directly interact with host cell receptors to influence cellular processes.

34. How does Mycoplasma's small size affect its nutrient acquisition strategies?

Mycoplasma's small size limits its capacity for complex metabolic pathways. As a result, it has evolved efficient mechanisms for acquiring nutrients from its host, including specialized transport proteins and the ability to closely associate with host cell membranes for direct nutrient uptake.

35. How do Mycoplasma infections affect the immune system beyond the initial infection?

Mycoplasma infections can have long-lasting effects on the immune system. They may induce a state of immune dysregulation, potentially leading to autoimmune responses or altered susceptibility to other infections even after the Mycoplasma itself has been cleared.

36. What are the challenges in developing vaccines against Mycoplasma?

Developing vaccines against Mycoplasma is challenging due to their antigenic variation, ability to evade the immune system, and the risk of inducing autoimmune responses. Additionally, the diversity of Mycoplasma species and strains complicates the development of broadly effective vaccines.

37. How does Mycoplasma's genomic plasticity contribute to its adaptability?

Despite its small genome, Mycoplasma exhibits genomic plasticity through mechanisms like phase variation and recombination. This allows for rapid adaptation to changing environments and contributes to its ability to persist in diverse host conditions.

38. What is the relationship between Mycoplasma and cancer research?

Mycoplasma has been a subject of interest in cancer research for several reasons. It's a common contaminant in cancer cell lines, potentially affecting research results. Some studies have also investigated possible links between chronic Mycoplasma infections and cancer development, though this relationship remains controversial.

39. How do Mycoplasma species interact with the host cell membrane?

Mycoplasma species interact closely with host cell membranes, often adhering tightly to the surface. Some species can fuse with the host membrane or even enter the cell. These interactions can disrupt host cell membrane integrity, alter signaling pathways, and facilitate nutrient acquisition.

40. What are the implications of Mycoplasma's ability to mimic host cell components?

Mycoplasma can mimic certain host cell components, a phenomenon known as molecular mimicry. This can lead to autoimmune responses where the immune system attacks host tissues that resemble Mycoplasma antigens. It also complicates the development of diagnostic tests and targeted therapies.

41. How does Mycoplasma's metabolism affect its growth rate compared to other bacteria?

Mycoplasma generally has a slower growth rate compared to many other bacteria due to its limited metabolic capabilities and reliance on host nutrients. This slow growth contributes to the chronic nature of many Mycoplasma infections and can make them difficult to detect in laboratory cultures.

42. What role does horizontal gene transfer play in antibiotic resistance in Mycoplasma?

While Mycoplasma has a reduced genome, it can acquire antibiotic resistance genes through horizontal gene transfer. This process allows Mycoplasma to adapt to antibiotic pressures and can lead to the emergence of resistant strains, complicating treatment strategies.

43. How does Mycoplasma's lack of a cell wall affect its morphology and detection methods?

Without a cell wall, Mycoplasma cells are pleomorphic (variable in shape) and can pass through filters that typically catch other bacteria. This affects detection methods, as they cannot be visualized with gram staining and require specialized techniques like PCR or specific culture media for identification.

44. What is the significance of Mycoplasma's ability to alter its surface antigens?

Mycoplasma can alter its surface antigens through mechanisms like phase variation. This ability helps it evade the host immune system, contributes to the establishment of chronic infections, and complicates the development of effective diagnostic tests and vaccines.

45. How does Mycoplasma impact cellular energy metabolism in infected host cells?

Mycoplasma infections can significantly alter the energy metabolism of host cells. They compete for nutrients, can degrade host cell components for their own use, and may interfere with mitochondrial function, potentially leading to changes in cellular energy production and overall cell health.

46. What are the implications of Mycoplasma contamination in biopharmaceutical production?

Mycoplasma contamination in biopharmaceutical production can have serious consequences. It can alter the properties of cell lines used for protein or vaccine production, potentially affecting product quality and safety. Detecting and preventing Mycoplasma contamination is a critical aspect of biopharmaceutical quality control.

47. What role do extracellular vesicles play in Mycoplasma pathogenesis?

Recent research has shown that some Mycoplasma species can produce extracellular vesicles. These vesicles can carry bacterial components and virulence factors, potentially affecting host cells at a distance and contributing to the systemic effects of Mycoplasma infections.

48. How does Mycoplasma interact with other microorganisms in polymicrobial infections?

In polymicrobial infections, Mycoplasma can interact with other microorganisms in complex ways. It may compete for resources, alter the local environment, or even form synergistic relationships that enhance overall virulence or antibiotic resistance of the microbial community.

49. What is the significance of Mycoplasma's ability to degrade extracellular matrix components?

Some Mycoplasma species can degrade extracellular matrix components, which facilitates their spread within host tissues. This ability contributes to their invasiveness and can lead to tissue damage, inflammation, and disruption of normal organ function.

50. What are the challenges in studying Mycoplasma pathogenesis in animal models?

Studying Mycoplasma pathogenesis in animal models is challenging due to the host specificity of many Mycoplasma species. This often necessitates the use of specialized animal models or the adaptation of human-specific Mycoplasma to animal hosts, which may not fully recapitulate the natural infection process.

51. How does Mycoplasma's ability to induce cytokine production contribute to disease symptoms?

Mycoplasma can induce the production of various cytokines in host cells. This cytokine response contributes to inflammation and many of the symptoms associated with Mycoplasma infections, such as fever and fatigue. The specific cytokine profile induced can vary between Mycoplasma species and strains.

52. What is the role of quorum sensing in Mycoplasma infections?

While less studied than in other bacteria, some Mycoplasma species exhibit quorum sensing-like behaviors. This cell-to-cell communication can influence biofilm formation, virulence factor production, and potentially the coordination of infection processes within a population of Mycoplasma cells.

53. How does Mycoplasma's lack of a cell wall affect its susceptibility to host defense mechanisms?

The lack of a cell wall makes Mycoplasma resistant to host defenses that target cell wall components, such as lysozyme. However, it also makes them more susceptible to complement-mediated lysis and other membrane-targeting host defenses, necessitating alternative survival strategies.

54. What are the implications of Mycoplasma's ability to incorporate host proteins into its membrane?

Some Mycoplasma species can incorporate host proteins into their cell membrane. This ability can help them evade the immune system by masking themselves with host antigens, acquire new functional capabilities, and potentially interfere with host cell signaling processes.