Minors And Cofactors

Minors And Cofactors

Komal MiglaniUpdated on 02 Jul 2025, 06:35 PM IST

The determinant is a scalar value that is a certain function of the entries of a square matrix. The determinant of a matrix A is commonly denoted det(A), det A, or |A|. Its value characterizes some properties of the matrix. In particular, the determinant is nonzero if and only if the matrix is invertible. In real life, we use minors and cofactors to calculate the adjoint and inverse of a matrix.

This Story also Contains

  1. Determinant of matrices
  2. Minors of matrix
  3. Cofactor of matrix
  4. Solved Examples Based on Minors and Cofactors
Minors And Cofactors
Minors And Cofactors

In this article, we will cover the Singular and non-singular matrix. This category falls under the broader category of Matrices, which is a crucial Chapter in class 12 Mathematics. It is not only essential for board exams but also for competitive exams like the Joint Entrance Examination(JEE Main) and other entrance exams such as SRMJEE, BITSAT, WBJEE, BCECE, and more. A total of two questions have been asked on this topic in Jee mains (2013 to 2023).

Determinant of matrices

The determinant of a matrix A is a number that is calculated from the matrix. For a determinant to exist, matrix A must be a square matrix. The determinant of a matrix is denoted by det A or |A|. So, The determinant is a scalar value that is a certain function of the entries of a square matrix

For $2 \times 2$ matrices

$
\mathrm{A}=\left[\begin{array}{ll}
a_1 & a_2 \\
b_1 & b_2
\end{array}\right]
$

then $\operatorname{det} \mathrm{A}$ is :

$
|\mathrm{A}|=\left|\begin{array}{ll}
a_1 & a_2 \\
b_1 & b_2
\end{array}\right|=\mathrm{a}_1 \times \mathrm{b}_2-\mathrm{a}_2 \times \mathrm{b}_1
$


For a $3 \times 3$ matrix determinant can be calculated in the following way :
let $\mathrm{A}=\left[\begin{array}{lll}a_1 & a_2 & a_3 \\ b_1 & b_2 & b_3 \\ c_1 & c_2 & c_3\end{array}\right]$
then we find $\operatorname{det} \mathrm{A}$ in following way

$
|A|=a_1\left(b_2 \cdot c_3-b_3 \cdot c_2\right)-a_2\left(b_1 \cdot c_3-c_1 b_3\right)+a_3\left(b_1 c_2-b_2 c_1\right)
$

This same process we follow to evaluate the determinant of the matrix of any order. Notice that we start the first term with the +ve sign then the 2nd with the -ve sign and the 3rd again with the +ve sign, this sign sequence is followed for any order of matrix.

This whole process is row-dependent, the same process can be done using columns, which means we can select elements along the column and delete their row and column compute the determinant of the out matrix, and then multiply it with the element that we select. And we will get the same result as we get while doing the whole process along the row.

Minors of matrix

Minor is the value from the computation of a determinant of a square matrix, obtained by eliminating the row and the column that corresponds to the element under consideration.

Let A be a square matrix of order $\mathrm{n}(\mathrm{n} \geq 2)$ then the Minor of any element $a_{i j}$ where $\mathrm{i}, \mathrm{j}=1,2,3 \ldots . \mathrm{n}$ is the determinant of the matrix leftover after deleting the $\mathrm{i}^{\text {th }}$ row and $\mathrm{j}^{\text {th }}$ column, is called the minor of the element $a_{i j}$ and it is denoted by $\mathrm{M}_{\mathrm{ij}}$.

If we have the row and column passing through the element $a_{i j}$ then the second-order determinant formed by the remaining elements is called the minor of $a_{i j}$ and it is denoted by $M_{i j}$.

$
\mathrm{M}_{11}=\left|\begin{array}{ll}
a_{22} & a_{23} \\
a_{32} & a_{33}
\end{array}\right|=\mathrm{a}_{22} \mathrm{a}_{33}-\mathrm{a}_{23} \mathrm{a}_{32}
$

which is also the minor of determinant $A$ if we write $A$ in determinant form.
We can expand determinant w.r.t. any row or column. In each case, the value of the determinant is the same.

Cofactor of matrix

The cofactor of the matrix or determinant is the same as the minor of the matrix or determinant but the only difference is of sign, if $\mathrm{i}+\mathrm{j}$ is even then cofactor $=$ minor, if $\mathrm{i}+\mathrm{j}$ is odd then cofactor $=-$ minor,

$
\mathrm{C}_{\mathrm{ij}}=(-1)^{i+j} \mathrm{M}_{i j}
$

Or we can write, $\quad=\left\{\begin{array}{cc}M_{i j} & \text { if } \mathrm{i}+\mathrm{j} \text { is an even integer } \\ -M_{i j} & \text { if } \mathrm{i}+\mathrm{j} \text { is an odd integer }\end{array}\right.$

$
\mathrm{C}_{\mathrm{ij}} \text { is co - factor of } \mathrm{a}_{\mathrm{ij}}
$

For example,

$
\Delta=\left|\begin{array}{lll}
a_{11} & a_{12} & a_{13} \\
a_{21} & a_{22} & a_{23} \\
a_{31} & a_{32} & a_{33}
\end{array}\right|
$

then, minor of the element $\mathrm{a}_{21}$ is $M_{21}=\left|\begin{array}{ll}a_{12} & a_{13} \\ a_{32} & a_{33}\end{array}\right|$ and that of $\mathrm{a}_{32}$ is $M_{32}=\left|\begin{array}{ll}a_{11} & a_{13} \\ a_{21} & a_{23}\end{array}\right|$.
Cofactor of the element $a_{21}$ is

$
C_{21}=(-1)^{2+1} M_{21}=-\left|\begin{array}{ll}
a_{12} & a_{13} \\
a_{32} & a_{33}
\end{array}\right|
$

If we expand the determinant $\Delta$ along the first row, then the value of $\Delta$ in terms of minors is $\mathrm{a}_{11} \mathrm{M}_{11}$ $\mathrm{a}_{12} \mathrm{M}_{12}-\mathrm{a}_{13} \mathrm{M}_{13}$.

If we expand the determinant $\Delta$ along the first row, then the value of $\Delta$ in terms of co-factors is $\mathrm{a}_{11} \mathrm{C}_{11}+\mathrm{a}_{12} \mathrm{C}_{12}-\mathrm{a}_{13} \mathrm{C}_{13}$.

Thus, the products of the elements of any row or column with the corresponding cofactors are equal to the value of the determinant.

Also, the sum of the products of the elements of any row or column with the cofactors of the corresponding elements of any other row or column is zero.

Important Points

1) If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical (all corresponding elements are the same), then the value of the determinant is zero.

2) If all the elements in one row or column are zero then the value of determinant is zero.

3) For easier calculations, we expand the determinant along that row or column which contains the maximum number of zeros.

Recommended Video Based on Minors and Cofactors


Solved Examples Based on Minors and Cofactors

Example 1: What is the minor of $\mathrm{a}_{23}$ in $\left|\begin{array}{ccc}1 & 3 & 5 \\ 8 & 2 & 1 \\ 5 & 6 & 10\end{array}\right|$ ?

Solution
Minor $M_{23}$ of the element $a_{23}$ is the determinant excluding the 2 nd row and 3rd column
So, minor $=\left|\begin{array}{ll}1 & 3 \\ 5 & 6\end{array}\right|=6-15=-9$
Hence, the answer is -9

Example 2: What is the co-factor of $\mathrm{a}_{33}$ in $\left|\begin{array}{lll}1 & 3 & 2 \\ 5 & 8 & 2 \\ 1 & 5 & 6\end{array}\right|$ ?

Solution
Minor of $a_{13}=\left|\begin{array}{ll}1 & 3 \\ 5 & 8\end{array}\right|=-7$
Cofactor of $\mathrm{a}_{13}=(-1)^{i+j} M_{i j}=(-1)^{1+3} M_{13}=-7$
Hence, the answer is -7

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q: How can minors and cofactors be used to understand the structure of sparse matrices?
A:
In sparse matrices, many minors and cofactors will be zero due to the abundance of zero elements. Analyzing the pattern of non-zero minors and cofactors can provide insights into the structure and properties of the sparse matrix, such as its rank and invertibility, without needing to perform full matrix computations.
Q: What's the significance of minors and cofactors in the study of matrix pencil regularization?
A:
In matrix pencil regularization, which is important in control theory and differential-algebraic equations, minors and cofactors of the pencil (A - λB) can provide information about the index and solvability of the system. They help in analyzing the structure of the pencil and its regularization.
Q: How do minors and cofactors behave in positive definite matrices?
A:
In positive definite matrices, all principal minors are positive. This property, which can be checked using cofactors, is often used as a criterion for positive definiteness. The behavior of minors and cofactors in these matrices reflects their special structure and properties.
Q: Can minors and cofactors be used to analyze the sensitivity of eigenvalues?
A:
Yes, minors and cofactors can be used in perturbation analysis of eigenvalues. The sensitivity of eigenvalues to small changes in matrix elements can be expressed in terms of cofactors of the characteristic matrix (A - λI), providing a tool for stability analysis in eigenvalue problems.
Q: What role do minors and cofactors play in the study of matrix polynomials?
A:
In matrix polynomials (polynomials whose coefficients are matrices), minors and cofactors of the coefficient matrices can provide information about the properties of the polynomial. They are particularly useful in studying the determinant of the matrix polynomial, which is itself a scalar polynomial.
Q: How can minors and cofactors be used to understand matrix singularity in parametric matrices?
A:
In parametric matrices, where elements depend on one or more parameters, analyzing the minors and cofactors as functions of these parameters can reveal conditions for singularity. The values of parameters that make all cofactors zero simultaneously indicate singular configurations of the matrix.
Q: What's the relationship between cofactors and the Cayley-Hamilton theorem?
A:
The Cayley-Hamilton theorem states that every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation. The coefficients of this equation can be expressed in terms of sums of principal minors, which are closely related to cofactors. This connection provides a link between the algebraic and geometric properties of matrices.
Q: What's the relationship between cofactors and the characteristic equation of a matrix?
A:
The coefficients of the characteristic equation of a matrix can be expressed in terms of sums of principal minors. The last term of the characteristic equation (the constant term) is (-1)^n times the determinant, which can be calculated using cofactors.
Q: How do minors and cofactors relate to the concept of matrix congruence?
A:
While not directly used in defining congruence, minors and cofactors can help analyze how congruence transformations affect matrix properties. The determinant of a congruence transformation (A → P^T A P) can be expressed in terms of the determinants (and thus cofactors) of the original matrix and the transformation matrix.
Q: Can minors and cofactors be used in matrix completion problems?
A:
Yes, minors and cofactors can play a role in matrix completion problems. The rank of submatrices, which is related to the non-zero minors, can provide constraints and insights into possible completions of a partially known matrix.